Cultivating Academic Success in the United States by Building a Culture of Equity, Lifelong Learning, and Teacher Autonomy

Diversity blooms in the United States, as today “the chance that two people chosen at random will be from different racial or ethnic groups has increased to 61.1% in 2020 from 54.9% in 2010” (Jensen et. al, 2021, para. 27). This progress will continue through 2050, when the Pew Research Center estimates that immigrants and their children will make up more than 34 percent of the population, compared to the 26 percent they make up today (Passel et. al, 2020, para. 46). Nowhere is this more salient than our education system, where a variety of factors — grade-repetition experiences, differences between schools in poverty concentration, use of between-class and within-class tracking, class size, and school discipline — contribute to racial achievement gaps between many students (Wu, 2020, p. 1). Despite calls for recruitment of teachers of color, diversity has actually declined in the past few years. “The proportion of White public school teachers grew slightly, from 79.3 percent in 2017-2018 to 79.9 percent during the 2020-2021 school year” (Richardson, 2023, para. 4). Researchers like Geneva Gay thus continue to advocate for restructuring teacher attitudes about diversity, fighting resistance to cultural diversity in pre-service and in-service teaching, centering culture and difference in the teaching process, and establishing pedagogical connections between culturally responsive teaching and subjects taught in schools (Gay, 2013, p. 48). The debate, after decades of research on Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies, is not whether or not students need equitable educational experiences but how teachers can begin the transformation needed to provide them. Many pre-service teaching programs are striving to develop intellectual agreement, but what we need is a heart change as these teachers begin their professional development. Our ability to have this heart change and truly meet the needs of all learners is not a foregone conclusion, as many multicultural nations are currently meeting the challenge; one such country is Estonia, and in looking at this northern European country through the lens of comparative education, we see potential and strategies for embedding its values of educational equity, lifelong learning, and local autonomy into programs.

Some U.S. researchers and educators argue against comparison of the two countries due to demographic and cultural differences (Butrymowicz, 2016, para. 1). For one, Estonia is significantly smaller, with a population of 1.3 million (Statistics Estonia, 2023, Population figure section, table 1), while the United States is home to about 333 million people (United States Census Bureau 2023). Secondly, the two economies are similarly developed but have different social safety nets. Both are similarly able to provide health, education, and income to their residents, with just ten spots dividing them on the Human Development Index (Conceição, 2022, p. 274). However, while Estonia’s gross domestic product per capita is half that of the United States’ (CEIC Data 2023), the country also has far less income inequality — again, half that of the United States when comparing the average income of the richest 20% to the poorest 20% (Conceição, 2019, p. 308). U.S. data shows a recent improvement here, as the child tax credit reduced child poverty by half (Burns et. al, 2022, para. 1) and “while overall household wealth in America fell from the end of 2021 through the first three quarters of 2022, the bottom 20% of households by income saw their wealth grow” (Gilligan, 2023, para. 2). Given these economic shifts, the disparity in income inequality between the two countries has narrowed but remained.

Far from being culturally homogenous, both Estonia and the United States are ethnically and linguistically diverse. When broken down by ethnicity, 69% identify as Estonian, 25% as Russian and 6% as other ethnic groups (Statistics Estonia, 2023, Population by ethnic nationality | 2022 – 2022 section, fig. 1). As fluid as these numbers are, this statistic is particularly in flux now as Estonia has accepted 62,000 Ukrainian refugees, 5% of its population and a larger ratio than any other country in the European Union (Tambur, 2022, para. 1). In the United States, 59.35% of people identify as White alone, 19% Hispanic or Latino, and 13.6% Black or African American (U.S. Census Bureau 2021). Both countries are also linguistically diverse, although the two educational systems approach this differently. “Census results show that 243 different mother tongues are spoken in Estonia. Estonian is spoken as a mother tongue by 67% and as a foreign language by 17% of the population. Therefore, a total of 84% of the population speaks Estonian.” (Statistics Estonia, 14 March 2023, para. 1). In comparison, in the United States, 245 million people are native English speakers while 43 million are native Spanish speakers (Lyons, 2020, para. 8), which breaks down to a 73% versus 12% split. 

There are still improvements to be made in both countries for linguistically diverse students. During the 2020 school year, Estonia had 73 public schools where the language of instruction was either Russian or Estonian and Russian (Eurydice Unit Estonia, 2022, December 16, para. 2). In 2007, all high schools were required to become bilingual and offer a minimum of 60 percent of their instruction in Estonian (National Center on Education and the Economy, 2021, Supports for school aged children section, para. 2). With this provision in place, later PISA results still showed an achievement gap, as scores from students in Russian-language schools were lower than expected. “At the same time the results of the Russian speaking students are above the OECD mean and it is a very good performance. However, in comparison with their peers in Estonian schools the gap persists” (Tire, 2020, p. 5). In 2022, the government decided to phase out its parallel systems and reduce the prominence of Russian in schools. By 2030, it hopes to eliminate Russian as an instructional language at all levels while native Russian speakers receive ELL support in immersive Estonian classrooms. Research does not support this choice, as “in a review and meta-analysis of this literature, Francis, Lesaux, and August (2006) concluded that ‘bilingual education has a positive effect on English reading outcomes that are small to moderate in size’ (392). Thus, overall, bilingual education for Hispanic children in the US leads to English outcomes that are equivalent to those found for children in mainstream English programs, with better outcomes for Spanish” (Bialystock, 2018, p. 670). 

By developing bilingualism among teachers, an emphasis on language learning in pre-service programs could therefore improve learning outcomes in both countries. Killo and Kustar theorize that the “low self-efficacy of Russian-speaking teachers as the agents of legitimization of the Estonian language in Russian-speaking schools, and their low position in power relations within the Estonian education system, can be explained in the categories of power and language” (Killo and Kustar, 2012, p. 245). Estonian teachers already complete extensive coursework and receive a master’s at the end of their five-year program, but training native speakers in both languages would both legitimize Russian for Estonian speakers and offer Russian speakers confidence in their linguistic abilities. This development of mutual respect is essential for both groups, as “there is still a problem regarding proficiency in the Estonian language among the Russian-speaking teachers, despite the large number of different language courses organized and provided by the state over the preceding years” (Killo and Kustar, 2012, p. 246). Adult education is common in Estonia, so factors contributing to this skill discrepancy may be socioemotional and related to power dynamics rather than resource availability. In the United States, many pre-service programs require coursework in working with English Language Learners but not proficiency in a foreign language or a study abroad experience. These requirements are usually limited to students pursuing degrees in linguistics, foreign literature, or languages. However, as teachers enter more diverse environments, coursework such as this may improve their multicultural perspectives and  ability to communicate across languages.

Whatever the outcome of the new provision reducing the prominence of the Russian language in schools, Estonian educators have shown a commitment to putting student outcomes first. Although most students are not officially tracked until secondary school, primary schools decide their own grouping and have experimented with homogenous clusters. “In the late 1990s, educators at Tartu Kivilinna Kool split up their students into three groups for math classes: high, average and low. At each level, the school’s 950 students followed the same basic curriculum, but they moved at different speeds or, in some cases for the more advanced students, dove deeper into the material. It was a departure from  what they’d done under the Soviet system. But by 2008, they abandoned the practice. ‘It didn’t work,’ Lukk said. The lowest group ‘didn't develop at all. They just vegetated.’” (Butrymowicz, 2016, para. 23). Teachers were dedicated to doing what was best for all students, not blaming lower ability students or comparing them to their high ability peers. While the country’s policy on bilingual education has been carefully considered in relation to the achievement gap, a respect for teacher voices and local autonomy as well as student scores will hopefully be taken into account if Russian students do not show signs of improvement as they move into immersion language programs.

What might be more significant than economic, ethnic, or linguistic differences is the two cultures’ differing attitudes toward educational equity in respect to minoritized students. In Estonia, “many educators said that an emphasis on giving everyone a similar educational experience is a crucial piece of the puzzle. ‘We really follow the straight line that everyone is equal,’ said Karin Lukk, principal of Tartu Kivilinna Kool, a grade 1-9 school in Estonia’s second largest city. ‘It doesn’t matter what kind of family you come from, you can still achieve a lot.’” (Butrymowicz, 2016, para. 14). Estonia’s overall PISA scores in 2018 were exceptional —  fifth in reading, fourth in science and eighth in mathematics overall (Schleicher, 2019, p. 6) — but, due to the country’s focus on equity, these scores are not exclusive to certain populations of students. Estonia actually has the smallest gap out of OECD countries between low- and high-income students in both the kind of math they are taught and in their performance (Butrymowicz, 2016, para. 19).

Conversely, one indicator of how U.S. teachers approach students experiencing minoritization is Ruby Payne’s book A Framework for Understanding Poverty and the in-service teacher education programs it is based on, resources that are both wildly popular and normalize deficit thinking. The book — having sold 1.8 million copies to date — characterizes poverty as its own type of culture and the people within it of a permanent mindset, regardless of income or whether or not they live below the poverty line (Payne, 2005, p. 61). However, critical analysis suggests “Her truth claims, offered without any supporting evidence, are contradicted by anthropological, sociological and other research on poverty. We have demonstrated through our analysis that teachers may be misinformed by Payne’s claims” (Bomer, 2008, p. 2499). Gorski has offered similar critical analysis, suggesting that “Payne’s failure to address systemic classism and her reliance, instead, on a deficit approach to understanding poverty, the emerging framework reflects more a compassionate conservative approach than one dedicated to equity and social justice” (Gorski, 2006, p. 2). In order to reject deficit thinking and move toward the type of educational equity Estonia has achieved, we must reflect on what biases we are projecting onto our students. “An anti-deficit perspective would suggest that racially minoritized students are not ‘at-risk,’ but educational institutions are at-risk of failing them” (Patton Davis, 2019, para. 6). Only when we ask ourselves how or why we are minoritizing students — be it due to socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, religion, language, or sexuality — can we understand our role in preventing the failure of educational institutions today.

Reflection on bias is deeply personal and can be done through a variety of mediums, whether one prefers reflective blogging, discussions, or other creative outputs. In quantitative studies performed at the two teaching colleges in Estonia, most teachers stated their preferred methods of reflection were reflecting alone or talking with other teachers (Lepp et. al, 2012, p. 22). These two methods may not be the best at developing equitable educational practices as we cannot correct biases we are unaware of and close colleagues may be unable or unwilling to challenge us. It is therefore important that pre-service teachers learn reflective methods that are dialogic, guided, and rooted in problem setting. Convertino’s work with the critical -dialogic model is particularly relevant here. Initially, the White pre-service teachers in her course expressed frustration at not being given ethnic tidbits, minimized cultural differences, and undermined the prejudices other students experienced (Convertino, 2016, p. 130). Even when faced with statistics, students continued to deny the existence of social stratification and its effect on education in America. In response, she turned to a critical-dialogic model to teach threshold concepts for multicultural education — including institutional oppression —and only then found success as students heard from one another. Use of the critical-dialogic model brings together students from “two or more social identity groups to build relationships across cultural and power differences, to raise consciousness of inequalities, to explore the similarities and differences in experiences across identity groups, and to strengthen individual and collective capacities to promote social justice” (Nagda, 2007, p. 35). Careful facilitation of the conversations is particularly important, as one quantitative study of blogging and self-evaluation on the use of reflection in teacher education showed that “just using a blog to share experiences, without guiding and promoting reflection, was not effective for developing reflection” (Kalk, 2012, p. 11). While there was a negative relationship between the frequency of instructors’ posts and reflective practices among pre-service teachers, the teachers reflected more as instructors challenged and guided them in their reflection. “Our results appear to indicate that guidance on reflection seems to be the most essential of these. Therefore, the characteristics of blogging might be important, but the relationships with blog characteristics may not emerge without guidance on reflection” (Kalk, 2012, p. 21). The addition of guidance may prompt greater reflection because it encourages teachers to take a position of problem-setting rather than problem-solving. “Problems of choice or decision are solved through the selection, from available means, of the one best suited to established ends. But with this emphasis on problem solving, we ignore problem setting, the process by which we define the decision to be made, the ends to be achieved, the means which may be chosen” (Schön, 1993, p. 25). Intergroup dialogues encourage problem setting rather than problem solving as they orient the decision-maker toward those affected most deeply, illuminate blind spots, and generally increase their cultural aperture by challenging the decision-maker’s description of what's happening, interpretation of the causes, and judgment about the positivity or negativity of the action (Hammond, 2014, p. 59). For pre-service teachers, these facilitated conversations could be an important part of coursework. As they move into service and develop communities of practice, facilitators could include staff from non-governmental organizations working in educational equity or tertiary institutes interested in promoting professional development among alumni. Districts could also coordinate intergroup discussions across schools as a part of professional learning communities. In any case, all facilitators should be skilled in challenging deficit thinking, guiding difficult conversations, and promoting Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies.

Estonia attributes much of its exceptional PISA scores to its culture of lifelong learning (Education Estonia, 2021, 00:01:20). This is true of both children and adults, as more than one in five of 24- to 64-year-olds also participate in at least one training course annually. This state-funded system facilitates coursework through “distance learning, evening courses, and external studies” (Haridus-ja Teadusministeerium, 2017, 00:4:40). While adult education may take place in a variety of settings, it generally maintains a formal structure and curriculum. The country’s policy on adult education and training funding ensures that all learners have access to formal education through full-time, tuition-free coursework, financial aid, and study leave (Eurydice, 2023, funding section, para. 1). In the formal system, refresher training helps to improve knowledge and skills through local training institutions, vocational educational institutions, institutions of higher education, and professional associations (Estonian Ministry of Education and Research 2019). This focus on the resources to learn allows teachers to grow in their practice as they face new problems and gain new understandings as research develops.

The ability to create effective professional development for new teachers in the United States is important as a culture of lifelong learning is both intrinsic and driven by authenticity. However, many current service models are extrinsically motivated — mandatory attendance by administrators — and deemed ineffective by current teachers when related to a topic outside of their content area. Equity is unlikely to be cultivated through the types of programs currently on offer, as Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies are generally outside the scope of specific content and a recent survey reported that “fewer than half found PD on non-content-related areas useful, and only 27 percent of teachers rated the training they received on student discipline and classroom management as useful, though this topic is a frequent challenge and a key to enabling student learning” (Jayaram et. al, 2012, p. 1). The overall reasons for these disparities may be attributed to a variety of affective causes, but different methods will have to be developed for all teachers to truly integrate Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies into our classrooms.

Throughout the past few years, significant resources have been devoted to the development of professional learning communities (PLCs) throughout the United States. Research supports the effectiveness of PLC’s when properly implemented, and these could be further devoted to assisting pre-service and new teachers with establishing communities of practice that will help them grow in their Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies. This too, must be guided in order to move them from intellectual agreement to a heart change; in their exploration of communities of practice among Estonian teachers, Haamer concluded “those providing such training also need training in how to design such programs as well as how to provide constructive and timely feedback” (Haamer et. al, 2012, p. 54). Education programs should therefore develop coursework for both undergraduate students and graduate students who plan to become master teachers and instructional coaches. In cases where the student population is not diverse, virtual communities of practice can encourage intergroup discussion among teachers and PLC’s that have become a feedback loop of the dominant culture.

Estonia’s teacher training program is particularly rigorous but lays out a plausible model for academic institutions in the United States. “Class teachers complete an integrated five-year bachelor’s and master’s degree program designed specifically to prepare teachers, while subject teachers receive a bachelor’s degree in their subject followed by a master’s degree in education” (National Center on Education and the Economy, 2021, Teacher preparation and induction section, para. 1). In the United States, an expanded year of coursework with the benefit of a master’s degree would allow teacher pre-service programs to offer more coursework in multicultural education, Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies, and language classes for bilingual education development. While a master’s degree does not always make a teacher more effective, the master’s degree requirements may have raised the professional status of teachers and attract talented and motivated individuals to the profession (Sahlberg 2015). 

One of the key factors in ensuring educational equity in Estonia has been this support of teacher autonomy at the local level. The national curriculum stipulates learning outcomes by grade, but individual institutions choose the best way for their students to meet those learning goals and how the curriculum is taught through models such as traditional subject division, project-based learning, or thematic units (Kangur, 2022, para 2). These decisions are not just made by administrators but the teachers themselves. “In Estonia, 83% of principals report that their teachers have significant responsibility for the majority of the tasks related to school policies, curriculum and instruction, which is higher than the OECD average (42%)” (Fraser et. al, 2022, p. 3). The United States, however, has low teacher autonomy and respect for the profession, where 96 percent of public school teachers report they have only some — not significant — control over selecting teaching techniques, evaluating and grading students, determining the amount of homework to be assigned, and disciplining students. In terms of  selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught, textbooks, and other instructional materials, only 84 percent report having some control (National Center for Education Statistics at IES, 2022, p. 4). Control at the local level is key to educational equity, as one of the four pillars of Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies is that the school is accountable to the community (Alim and Paris 2017). In Estonia, schools are accountable to their local communities by meeting the needs of the students in their care. In the United States, we have created a system in which teachers are accountable to the government and businesses rather than the people they serve.

While teachers in the United States must have more autonomy in their classrooms to meet student needs, they will also need to feel empowered to make choices that are best for their students. They will have to be trusted and trust themselves to make the best choices when managing pedagogical dilemmas that require them to balance student needs, curricula, competing loyalties, the social sensitivity of topics, input from the community, etc. One plan that has been presented for helping teachers to analyze these decisions is that of the Potter Box, which uses four dimensions of moral analysis to help in situations where ethical dilemmas occur: facts, values, principles, and loyalties (Kello and Harro-Loit, 2012, p. 115). Interviews with several Estonian teachers suggested that the model has the potential to find out which elements of a dilemma are most important, discuss what loyalties they are aware of, and compare the extent of their professional autonomies (Kello and Harro-Loit, 2012, p. 128). These could be used extensively in coursework as teachers think through their own competing commitments and advocate for their own autonomy. If given this space, teachers would then have the space to articulate these dilemmas while coming to conclusions about what is best for students with input from the community.

The theologian Reinhold Niebuhr once said “Love is the motive, but justice is the instrument.” The vast majority of teachers, especially those who have entered and stayed in the profession through the last three years, truly love their students and want them to succeed. Yet, it is becoming abundantly clear that for students to tap into their highest potentials, we must offer them not just quality educations but equitable ones. We can love our students indiscriminately, but we must also learn to see and teach them individually. Tertiary education has a clear responsibility in preparing pre-service teachers to provide equity, while districts and school administrators currently have the largest role in developing school culture and assisting teachers in their professional development as they enter the profession. By collaborating more, both groups could be more effective in this fight for justice. Teacher education programs could help deploy new strategies and methods to alumni teachers who are unprepared for the current realities of the profession. Schools could also communicate more clearly with pre-service programs to be honest about what they are seeing at the ground level and the multicultural skills new teachers need. If both these institutions can shift to supporting all teachers — while working alongside teacher’s unions, non-governmental organizations, and other institutions committed to professionalism, educational equity, and innovative instruction —-  this will plant the seeds for teachers to not only survive but flourish through lifelong learning and growth.

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